IB Psychology HL

4.12 Explain, using examples, emic and etic concepts Pike (1967) suggested the emic and the etic concepts to address the issues of ‘culture specific’ versus ‘universal’, i.e. what is consistent across cultures. Emic Emic research studies one culture alone to understand culture-specific behaviour. Researchers attempt to study behaviour through the eyes of the people who live in that culture. The way the phenomenon is linked to the culture (structure) and the meaning it has in this particular culture (context) is emphasized. The focus is on the norms, values, motives, and customs of the members of the culture as they interpret and understand it themselves, explained with their own words. Example 1: Bartlett (1932) mentioned the extraordinary ability of Swazi herdsmen to recall individual characteristics of their cattle. He explained that the Swazi culture revolves around the possession and care of cattle and it is important for people to recognize their animals because this i...

4.11 Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behaviour A dimension of culture is an aspect of culture that can be measured relative to other cultures. The conceptual framework “cultural dimensions” was suggested by Hofstede (1980) in his survey of 88000 IBM employees working in 66 countries across the world. Hofstede argues that differences in behaviour are a consequence of culture. Culture should be seen as a collective phenomenon that may distinguish one group from another on specific dimensions. Culture is seen as ‘mental programming’ or ‘mental software’. An individual’s mental software will determine the way the person acts and thinks and the mental software is resistant to change. Unlearning what is once learned and internalized is very difficult. According to Hofstede, understanding the influence of cultural dimensions on human behaviour can facilitate international understanding and communication Collectivism and individualism This relations to the relationship ...

4.10 Define the terms culture and cultural norms Culture Lonner (1995): Culture can be defined as the common rules that regulate interactions and behaviour in a group as well as a number of shared values and attitudes in the group. Hofstede (1995): Culture can be defined as a collective mental programming that is the “software of the mind” that guides a group of people in their daily interactions and distinguished them from other groups of people. Matsumoto (2004): Culture can be defined as a dynamic system of rules, explicit and implicit, established by groups in order to ensure their survival, involving attitudes, values, beliefs, norms, and behaviours. Cultural norms Cultural norms can be defined as the rules that a specific group uses for stating what is seen as appropriate and inappropriate behaviours, values, beliefs, and attitudes. Cultural norms give people a sense of order and control in their lives as well as a sense of safety and belonging. Cultural norms ...

4.9 Discuss factors influencing conformity Informational conformity (informational influence) Normative conformity (normative social influence) Conformity (referent informational influence) When an individual turns to members of a group to obtain information about what is right. Example of research study: Sherif (1935) When an individual conforms in order to be accepted or liked by other members of the group as people have a need for social approval and acceptance Example of research study: Asch (1951) When an individual identifies with a particular social group (ingroup) and conforms to a prototypical group norm → increase in similarity between ingroup members as well as difference to outgroup Situational factors in conformity: group size and group unanimity Group size: Asch made variations of the original study by altering the amount of confederates. When there was only one confederate, the participant answered correctly. With two confederates, the ...

4.8 Evaluate research on conformity to group norms Sherif (1936) Sherif used the autokinetic effect (an optical illusion where a fixed pinpoint of light in a completely dark room appears to move because of the eye movements). Half of the participants first watched the light alone and gave a verbal estimate of how much and in what direction the light moved. Sherif found that after a number of trials, participants began to estimate based on their own frame of reference. Then, the experiment continued in groups with three to four participants who took turns to estimate in random order. The participants now used each other’s estimates as a frame of reference and these converged into more or less identical estimates. A group norm had developed, which participants conformed to once it had been established. Then, the other half of the participants performed the estimation task alone. Sherif found that participants continued to estimate based on the group norm when they did the task alon...

4.7 Discuss the use of compliance techniques The norm of reciprocity The social norm of reciprocity dictates that we treat other people the way they treat us (Cialdini, 1993). People are socialized into returning favours and this powerful rule underpins compliance. Lynn and McCall (1988) found that restaurants who offered a mint or a sweet with the bill received larger tips. Tiger and Fox (1971) suggested that reciprocation (mutual indebtedness) could be a result of evolution. The feeling of future obligation has made an important difference in human social evolution, because it meant that one individual cold offer something to another individual and be confident that he or she could except something in return. Regan (1971) Aim: To test whether participants who had received a favour from another would be more likely to help this person than if they had not received a favour. Procedure: One participant and a confederate of the experimenter were asked to rate paintings. In ...

4.6 Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies Bandura (1977) suggested social learning theory (SLT) as an extension of existing learning theories (classical and operant conditioning). SLT is based on the assumption that people learn behaviours, attitudes, emotional reactions and norms through direct experiences but also through observing other humans (models). We learn consequences of behaviour from watching what happens to other humans (vicarious reinforcement). Once such information is stored in memory it serves as a guide to future actions. People are more likely to imitate behaviour that has positive consequences. Social learning can be direct via instructions or indirect (e.g. role models and no direct instructions). Four important factors in social learning (observational learning) Attention Paying attention to the model is a condition for learning ↓ Retention Remembering what the model did is a condition for imitating the mode...